From their roots to their leaves, plants are populated by microorganisms. The relationships between microorganisms and plants are known; they are the rhizosphere, mycorrhizae, and lichens. However, the aerial environment of plants (called phyllosphere) is a habitat that has recently begun to be studied. It is composed of a variety of microorganisms. The presence of microorganisms in leaves is due to organic molecules such lipids, vitamins and hormones that are present in the cuticle and epicuticle of leaves.

The aerial environment of the leaves is exposed to drastic environmental changes. The temperature throughout the day can vary, reaching up to 55 ° C and down to 5 ° C at night. Leaves are also exposed to strong UV radiation, rain, and wind. Environmental variation modifies the micro-environment of leaves, affecting the composition, structure and amount of the cuticle where the nutrients for microorganisms are found. In spite of the harsh conditions, fungi, yeasts, protozoa, nematodes and bacteria have been found in the phyllosphere; bacteria are the most abundant organisms in the phyllosphere.

Interactions between plants and the phyllosphere are poorly understood. However it has been reported that a leaf covered with microorganisms provides advantages to the plant in the face of water stress. There are also bacteria that have the ability to form waxes that protect the plant from moisture loss through perspiration. Despite the advantages the phyllosphere microorganisms provide to plant, their influence on plant physiology is not known.

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines anxiety as “an emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried thoughts and physical changes (cited by Felman, 2018). On the other hand, stress is defined as a body reaction. Some reactions are physical, mental or emotional.

Sometimes, it is normal to feel anxious or stressed from some everyday situations such as moving to a new place, starting a new job, or taking a test. Usually, ordinary anxiety and stress comes and goes, but does not interfere with your everyday life. Nevertheless, when anxiety and stress start to be present all the time, it can cause physical symptoms such as ringing in the ears or tinnitus.

Ringing in the ears (tinnitus) is a common symptom caused by a combination of anxiety and persistently elevated stress. Tinnitus can be experienced in a number of ways and can vary from person to person. Some descriptions could be:

• Hearing a high-pitched hissing sound ringing in the background.
• Having a high frequency ringing sound in one or both ears.
• Having a ‘clogged’ and/or ‘plugged’ feeling in one or both ears.
• Having an inability to hear certain sounds because the ringing sound is too loud.
• Having what seems like water in your ear that causes your hearing to have a hollow or low rumbling sound.
• Feeling like your hearing is muted and/or subdued.
• Feeling like there is a pressure in your ear that’s causing the hissing sounds.
• In quiet environments the tinnitus sounds can seem louder and the feelings more intense.

The persistence of tinnitus can trigger feelings such as frustration and annoyance that can increase stress levels. Tinnitus occurs more commonly than most of us think, but it is generally thought that the body adapts to filter out the ringin. However, the hypersensitivity of the ringing associated with stress and anxiety means that you will be more likely to pick up on every sensation occurring within the body. In the case of tinnitus, this can mean that you will be more hyperaware of the problem and experience the ringing as louder and more problematic.

Ringing in the ears could potentially be caused by increased electrical signalling in the parts of the brain responsible for auditory processing, including the amygdala – thought to be the fear centre of the brain. Stress activates our fight or flight system, and this places a great deal of pressure on the nerves, blood flow, body heat, and other bodily reactions. It also increases electrical activity in the amygdala to increase our efficiency in responding to threatening situations. This over-activation of our sympathetic nervous system places a great deal of stress on our body and it’s likely that this pressure in the inner ear could lead to tinnitus symptoms. What’s more, stress also increases your blood pressure and heart rate, which can contribute to and make symptoms of tinnitus more noticeable.

Reducing tinnitus

Here are some things that might reduce anxiety and, in turn, reduce one’s experience of tinnitus:

• Biofeedback therapy is a technique that people use where they focus on controlling bodily functions that are typically involuntary, such as heart rate and breathing. A person is connected to electrical sensors that displays the information to them via lights. People use their thoughts to control their body and focus on making subtle changes like moving a particular muscle. Hence, controlling your anxious thoughts could help you to reduce the ringing.
• Relaxation techniques include mediation and deep breathing, and can help people focus on something aside from their tinnitus. These techniques have been shown to be therapeutic for many people in reducing anxiety.
• Sound machines or tinnitus maskers are devices that generate white noise or other soothing sounds to cover up, or “mask,” one’s experience of tinnitus.

Conclusion

Patience is your best ally to try to control your tinnitus. Hence, relaxation probably helps you to control this condition. However, sometimes the tinnitus is caused by other external factors such as the loud sound of a gun shot, high blood pressure, diabetes, and so on. Therefore it is really important to visit a doctor for diagnosis and treatment.

Reference:

Felman A. (2018). What to know about anxiety? Retrieved from: https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323454.php

The word Nacajuca comes from the náhuatl term “Nacaxuxuca,” which means place of pale or discolored faces. It is said that the name arose because Nacajuca settlements were near a river and for this reason the inhabitants were sick with malaria. The Nacajuca yokot´an region is inhabited by the maya-chontal ethnic group. However, the first groups in the region were the Olmecs. Later Mayans and Zoques settled and they developed their own characteristics, which gave rise to the Maya-Chontal civilization, now known as “Yokotanes”.

Currently most indigenous Yokotanes are in Nacajuca. However, previously their territory covered the plain of the Gulf of Mexico. The large area they occupied was due to their main characteristic: excellent navigation. Due to the region’s large area, they could control trade, giving them access to the flow of goods and people through well-established routes linking Tabasco with Chiapas, Soconusco, Guatemala and the Central Highlands of Mexico. In addition to trade, the Chontales practiced agriculture and they dominated the art of fishing in the sea and in the network of canals spread throughout the plains. Currently the life of the Chontales has undergone dramatic changes.